Ground Beef

the ground beef with the extract added contained a lowered content of thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARs) than the control sample (ground beef without antioxidant adding).

From: Polyphenols in Plants (Second Edition) , 2019

Electron beam processing of fresh and/or frozen raw ground beef

H.E. Clemmons , ... E.J. Brown , in Electron Beam Pasteurization and Complementary Food Processing Technologies, 2015

14.5 Product feasibility testing

Ground beef may be electron beam irradiated in various product and packaging configurations. The configurations must adhere to the dimensional requirements that permit proper and uniform dose delivery. The precise dimensional requirements for uniform dose delivery are determined through the feasibility testing. Feasibility testing allows the manufacturer to design the ideal product configuration, packaging, and master case layout. Each of these identified parameters for each of the ground beef products to be irradiated will allow for the proper penetration and uniform electron distribution and dose delivery.

Height or thickness of the ground beef in relation to how the electron beam is presented to the surface of the ground beef is the primary dimensional requirement that determines a uniform dose delivery. The "height" of the ground beef is the ground beef's overall height excluding packaging material and airspace. The height of the ground beef affects the electron distribution. The bulk density, beam penetration, and electron distribution in the ground beef remain constant, whether in the fresh or frozen state. Typically, the overall height is between 3.5 and 3.7 inches, which allows for a uniform electron dose distribution using a dual electron beam irradiation system. Certain factors will affect the overall height at which ground beef can be properly irradiated. Chubs, or the cylindrical tubes of ground beef, and ground beef patties, which are scored to permit quicker uniform cooking of the patty, are a couple of examples that will affect dose distributions.

When ground beef height increases and the thickness exceeds the limit for uniform deposition of electrons, the max:min ratio increases. The max:min ratio will identify the maximum thickness at which the ground beef can receive a uniform dose delivery and be properly irradiated. Eventually, as ground beef thickness increases, it will exceed the allowable thickness limit. When the allowable thickness limit is exceeded, the beam will not penetrate to the center of the ground beef, resulting in a minimal dose of electrons being distributed to the center of the ground beef (Fig. 14.1).

Figure 14.1. Dual beam max:min ratio dose uniformity unacceptable: ground beef thickness/height is too tall or thick (low or no dose is in the center of the product).

When ground beef thickness is lessened or thinned, the beam penetration and electron distribution will overlap. The overlap of the electrons results in an increased dose in the center of the ground beef and the max:min ratio increases. The max:min ratio will identify the minimum thickness at which the ground beef can receive a uniform dose delivery and be properly irradiated. Eventually, as thickness decreases, it will allow additional packages of ground beef to be stacked until the thickness achieves a thickness for uniform dose delivery and a reasonable max:min ratio. When the allowable thickness limit is too thin or minimized, the electrons will abundantly penetrate to the center of the ground beef resulting in a higher than desired dose being delivered to the center of the product (Fig. 14.2).

Figure 14.2. Dual beam max:min ratio dose uniformity unacceptable: ground beef thickness/ height is too thin or short (high dose is in the center of the product).

Determining if the total overall height of the ground beef must be increased or decreased is dependent on the dose point measurement within the ground beef that receives the least or minimum dose during the irradiation treatment. When the minimum dose point is in the center of the ground beef and maximum dose point is near to or on the surface of the ground beef, the product's height must be decreased. When the minimum dose point is near or on the surface of the ground beef and the maximum dose point is in the center the product's height must be increased.

The ideal height or thickness is established when the irradiation dose is uniformly distributed throughout the ground beef. The optimal product height or thickness for irradiation is identified when the measured absorbed dose applied to the top and bottom surfaces and the midpoint at the center of the ground beef are all equal (Fig. 14.3).

Figure 14.3. Dual beam max:min ratio dose uniformity acceptable: ground beef thickness/height is ideal (dose is uniformly distributed and will be properly applied throughout the product).

Ground beef with overall thickness too thin for uniform dose delivery but is too thick when the packages are double stacked for uniform dose delivery, can be irradiated using attenuation. Attenuation is the use of an absorption fixture placed between the ground beef and linear accelerator applying the electron beam, to absorb a specified amount of electrons being applied to the product.

The thickness of the attenuation required to adsorb the electrons for uniform dose delivery in ground beef that is packaged too thin is a product of the density of the attenuation fixture material used, the density of the ground beef, and its overall thickness. Attenuation acts as a replacement or a filler for the ground beef to get to the required density needed to achieve a uniform dose delivery and tight max:min ratio.

While the use of attenuation is an alternative to achieving uniform dose delivery, its use will reduce the irradiation processing efficiency. eBeam irradiation efficiency is reduced as a result of the electrons being deposited in the attenuation device instead of being delivered into the ground beef to reduce foodborne pathogens and adulterants. Consideration should be given in identifying and designing the height of the ground beef and packaging configuration to achieve a uniform dose delivery.

Feasibility testing will also assist the manufacturer in the development, engineering, and designing of each individual stack of ground beef patties, individual package of ground beef, and master case layout of stacks of beef patties or individual packages. Individual package and master case design is the second most critical step in the engineering and feasibility testing process.

The purpose of identifying the ideal thickness of each ground beef product is to achieve a uniform dose delivery throughout the product with a fairly tight targeted max:min ratio. The targeted max:min ratio range for the best ground beef organoleptic values and ground beef performance is typically 1.35–1.45   max:min when ground beef is packaged at the ideal height or thickness.

While it is important to maintain a tight max:min ratio for both quality attributes and processing efficiencies, the manufacturer may determine during the feasibility testing phase whether some other max:min ratio is suitable for irradiating the ground beef. The max:min ratio is based on the manufacturer's desired end results for ground beef's safety and acceptability. The manufacturer's criteria for the ground beef include the evaluation and results for reduction of foodborne pathogens and adulterants, organoleptic properties and product performance. The ground beef's max:min ratio is driven by the height or thickness of the ground beef to be irradiated. Identifying the proper height or thickness will yield the tightest or best max:min ratio for irradiating the ground beef. The irradiation dose uniformity delivered throughout the ground beef is measured and calculated by dosimetry.

Dosimeters are used to measure the dose of ionizing radiation to which the ground beef has been exposed. There are two types of dosimeters: alanine in the form of pellets or films, and radiochromic dye films. Alanine pellets and alanine films are considered the "Gold Standard" in dosimetry. They are placed at identified measurement points throughout the ground beef. The measurement points identify where the ground beef receives the lowest minimum dose and highest maximum dose of irradiation. Dividing the maximum dose by the minimum dose equates to the max:min ratio. If the calculated ratio allows the ground beef to be irradiated within the customer's established minimum to maximum dose range, then product configuration is established. If the calculated ratio does not allow the ground beef to be irradiated within the customer's established minimum to maximum dose range, additional product engineering is required.

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Fresh and cured meat processing and preservation

Steven M. Lonergan , ... Dennis N. Marple , in The Science of Animal Growth and Meat Technology (Second Edition), 2019

Ground Beef

Ground beef is a major market for beef in the United States. More than one half of the beef sold in the United States is in the form of ground beef. It has a big market share in fast-food restaurants, traditional restaurants, institutions, and in US homes. The terms ground beef and chopped beef are considered to have the same meaning. Ground beef is prepared by the use of mechanical, high-speed grinding and/or chopping of boneless beef cuts and trimmings. The manufacture of ground beef products is regulated by the United States Department of Agriculture—Food Safety and Inspection Service (USDA-FSIS) codes in which composition and labeling regulations of ground beef products are spelled out in detail. These regulations specify that ground beef must be made from fresh and/or frozen beef, with or without seasoning, and without the addition of fat, and is limited to 30% fat. Many ground beef products are much leaner (e.g., 90% lean, 10% fat, and they must be labeled as such). Furthermore, the regulations state that ground beef may not contain added water, extenders, or binders and not exceed 25% cheek meat (the masseter muscles of the head). Ground beef made from the round or ground beef made from the chuck must be listed on the package label to denote the cut or part used for making that specific product. Hamburger is a popular term used for ground beef, and the USDA definition for hamburger is only slightly different from that for ground beef. Based on its legal definition, hamburger can have added beef fat. Interestingly, hamburger has nothing to do with the pork carcass wholesale cut, ham.

A product labeled "beef patties" is different from ground beef in that beef patties can contain binders and extenders and may or may not have added water. The word patty is commonly used to describe ground beef products. Low-fat beef patties are those products combining meat and other nonmeat ingredients for the production of low-fat meat products. These products must be labeled as low fat, fat reduced, and/or containing nonmeat ingredients. In addition to being used in patties, it is also used in the manufacture of foods such as pizza, spaghetti, tacos, and burritos, and often it is frozen for use in ready to heat and serve dishes such as casseroles. A large amount of patty manufacturing takes place by using a continuous system of grinding, blending, forming, freezing, and packaging. Large beef-patty processing plants have equipment capable of producing 10,000 pounds per hour. Fat content is monitored online by rapid analytical methods like infrared (Fig. 13.1). Immediate and constant analysis is essential in producing the desired blends of lean and fat to meet company specifications and making necessary blend adjustments. Special meat grinder plates are available to greatly reduce or eliminate any bone particles that have been part of the beef trimmings (Fig. 13.2). Use of rapid cryogenic freezing substances such as liquid nitrogen (−   80°F) has become more common because of its beneficial effects on decreasing cooking loss and improving the flavor of the ground beef products. After rapid freezing, the packaged ground beef product is placed in freezers for storage for subsequent shipment to retail stores, restaurants, and institutions.

Fig. 13.1

Fig. 13.1. An example of a rapid analytical method to determine the fat, moisture, and protein percentages of ground beef using an infrared unit.

 From: NDC Infrared Engineering Inc., Irwindale, California.

Fig. 13.2

Fig. 13.2. Special meat grinder plates used to greatly reduce or eliminate bone particles in ground beef products.

 Courtesy, Iowa State University Meat Science Laboratory.

Precooking patties at the wholesale level is becoming increasingly more popular because of the demand for rapid meal preparation and service, especially in the fast-food industry. Usually, the three stages of precooking doneness are fully cooked, partially cooked, and char-marked. Also, ground lamb, pork, chicken, and turkey patties are manufactured for retail sale using the same techniques described for beef patties.

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HOT BONING AND CHILLING

A.T. Waylan , C.L. Kastner , in Encyclopedia of Meat Sciences, 2004

Ground and Restructured Products

Ground beef from hot-processed muscles and trimmings offer several advantages. Additionally, the bacteriological quality might even enhance the feasibility of boning carcasses before chilling because ground beef from hot-boned carcasses has lower coliform and generic Escherichia coli counts than that from cold-boned products. Ground beef from hot-processed carcasses is generally equal to that from conventionally chilled and processed carcasses in terms of palatability and shelf-life characteristics. Furthermore, beef trimmings from electrically stimulated carcasses do not adversely affect the quality of the final product. A recommended production system is to coarsely grind hot-processed trim immediately post mortem, then chill rapidly before final grinding. This system offers optimal quality and microbial attributes.

Restructured products satisfy the needs of the hotel, restaurant and institutional trade by providing a uniform size and a consistently tender product. The fat- and water-binding capacity of pre-rigor beef muscle is greater than that of post-rigor muscle. To optimize the improved binding ability, salt (up to 4%) is blended in the coarsely ground product. This makes pre-rigor muscle ideal for restructured product when maximum binding capacity is required for consumer approval.

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Handling of hamburgers and cooking practices

Daniel A. Unruh , ... Sara E. Gragg , in Food Hygiene and Toxicology in Ready-to-Eat Foods, 2016

Storage

Upon purchase, ground beef should be refrigerated or frozen as soon as possible. This practice both preserves freshness and, importantly, slows the growth of any bacteria present in the beef. Fresh ground beef can be stored for 1–3 days at a temperature below 40°F (4.4°C), with an optimum temperature of 28°F (−2.2°C). If vacuum packaged, fresh ground beef can be stored under these conditions for up to 14 days, depending on the supplier. Frozen ground beef should be stored at, or below, 0°F (−17.8°C) for up to 90 days ( Anonymous, 2014). If properly held under these conditions, frozen ground beef is considered safe indefinitely; however, the quality will degrade throughout storage (USDA-FSIS, 2013a). Following cooking, ground beef can be refrigerated for 2–3 days below 40°F (4.4°C) and frozen up to 90 days at 0°F (−17.8°C) or below (Anonymous, 2014). If the ground beef is to be used soon, it is appropriate to refrigerate or freeze it in the original packaging. If the product will be stored in the freezer for extended periods of time it should be wrapped in aluminum foil, heavy-duty plastic wrap, freezer paper, or plastic freezer bags prior to freezing (USDA-FSIS, 2013a).

Frozen ground beef can be thawed safely in the refrigerator and should be cooked or refrozen within 1–2 days (Anonymous, 2014; USDA-FSIS, 2013a). It is also appropriate to use a microwave oven to defrost frozen ground beef; however, the ground beef should be cooked immediately, as portions of the product may have begun to cook while defrosting. Submerging frozen ground beef in cold water can also be a safe defrosting method, if the meat is placed in a waterproof plastic bag and the water is replaced every 30   min. Ground beef thawed in this manner should be cooked immediately. Ground beef defrosted in the microwave oven or submerged in cold water should never be refrozen, unless it has been cooked prior to freezing (USDA-FSIS, 2013a).

Following storage and thawing guidelines is important for ensuring quality as well as safety of ground beef products. Both spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms may be present in ground beef and can rapidly multiply between 40°F and 140°F (4.4°C and 60°C), which is known as the temperature "danger zone." Growth of spoilage microorganisms can degrade product quality, while pathogenic microbial growth poses a risk of foodborne illness (USDA-FSIS, 2013a). Before cooking, consumers may notice ground beef packaging containing a blood-like liquid remaining after taking the meat out. This liquid is known as "purge" and is a result of cellular breakage and moisture loss from the ground beef. It is completely normal and often becomes more pronounced as temperature increases or the longer the product sits in the package (USDA-FSIS, 2011).

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CANDIDA | Yarrowia lipolytica (Candida lipolytica)

J.B. Sutherland , ... S.A. CrowJr., in Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology (Second Edition), 2014

Isolation from Meat Products

Poultry, ground beef, ground lamb, sausage and other dry-cured meat products, crabs, mussels, and several types of fish frequently contain Y. lipolytica (Table 1). Even meat products in cold storage may harbor slow-growing cultures of Y. lipolytica.

Table 1. Foods that frequently contain Y. lipolytica

Beef (ground)
Butter
Cheese
Chicken
Crab
Cream
Fermented milk products (amasi, kumis, etc.)
Ham
Kefir (or kefyr)
Lamb (ground)
Margarine
Milk (cow, ewe, goat, and mare)
Mussels
Sausage
Seafood
Turkey
Yogurt

In refrigerated chickens and turkeys, 39% of the yeast isolates consist of strains of Y. lipolytica that are able to grow at 5 °C. Comparable numbers can be found in fresh, frozen, smoked, and roasted chickens and turkeys.

In dry-cured ham and sausages, Y. lipolytica is typically abundant. Although cultures may be obtained from raw ham, high numbers found in cured ham often are associated with spoilage. Yarrowia lipolytica tolerates the sulfur dioxide that often is added to unfermented sausages and also is found in many types of fermented sausage. Yarrowia lipolytica sometimes is combined with the yeast Debaryomyces hansenii and the lactic acid bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum in starter cultures for pork sausages because its lipases produce free fatty acids and other volatile compounds that add flavor to the product. It also has proteases that cause an increase in low-molecular weight peptides. In some but not all countries, the polyene antibiotic natamycin (pimaricin) is permitted to be used on sausages as a surface preservative, where it acts as an inhibitor of Y. lipolytica.

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MEAT

Marjorie P. Penfield , Ada Marie Campbell , in Experimental Food Science (Third Edition), 1990

1.

Prepare ground beef patties from ground beef of varying fat contents. Cook one-half of the patties and freeze. Freeze the other half raw. Store for at least 1 wk. Cook the raw frozen patties from the frozen state. Thaw and heat the cooked, frozen patties in a microwave oven on defrost. Collect data to calculate cooking losses as shown in Table III. Compare flavor and texture of the two products. Compare cooking losses. Compare results with those of Berry et al., (1981).

2.

As indicated by Parizek et al., (1981), the demand for ground beef suggests the need for a less expensive alternative. Thus it seems appropriate to mix pork with beef in ground meat patties. Mix ground pork and beef in varying proportions, cook, and evaluate cooking losses and sensory properties. Other tests that could be done if equipment is available would be shear tests and chemical analysis for fat content of raw and cooked patties to determine fat retention.

3.

To evaluate the uniformity of heating in a microwave oven, place equal weights (110 g should be adequate) of ground beef from the same lot into nine custard cups. Place the nine cups in three rows and columns in the oven, leaving space between. Heat on high power for 5 min. Remove from the oven and invert dish to remove meat. Cut through the center and compare for differences in degree of doneness.

4.

Study the effect of meat tenderizer on the tenderness of broiled round steak. Use adjacent cuts of meat. Sprinkle a weighed amount of tenderizer on each side of one steak (2.0 g/side of a 450-g steak). Fork in 50 strokes per side. Weigh the steak. Treat a second steak in a like manner, except omit the tenderizer. Broil each steak for 12 min/side or until desired degree of doneness is reached. After the steaks cook, cool for 10 min. Weigh each one. Calculate cooking losses. If possible do shear values. For sensory evaluation, cut samples of equal size from the same position in both steaks for each of the judges. Ask the judges to record the number of chews that are required before the meat is ready to swallow. Ask them to describe the texture of each sample.

5.

Compare the quality and cooking losses of meat loaves baked to 60, 71, 77, and 80°C. Evaluate the flavor, color, and texture of each of the loaves, noting differences among them.

6.

To study the effects of salt on the retention of water in meat during heating, divide a well-mixed sample of ground beef into three equal portions. To one portion, add no salt; to the second, add 5.5 g of salt/450 g of meat; and to the third add 15 g of salt/450 g of meat. Cook as meat patties or loaves. Bake loaves at 163°C to the end-point temperature 77°C. Weigh the patties or loaves before and after cooking. Calculate cooking losses.

7.

Compare oven roasting of beef semitendinosus with heating in a microwave oven. One-half of a muscle may be used for each cooking method. Unless a special thermometer is available for use in the microwave oven, the roast must be removed from the oven periodically and a thermometer or thermocouple inserted to see if the roast has reached the desired degree of doneness. Compare cooking losses and sensory properties. If equipment is available, determine Warner–Bratzler shear values.

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MEAT | Eating Quality

I. Lebert , ... R. Talon , in Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition (Second Edition), 2003

Other pathogenic bacteria causing sporadic cases

Undercooked or raw ground beef has been implicated in nearly all documented outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 and in other sporadic cases. E. coli is a normal inhabitant of the intestine of all animals, including humans. Currently, there are four recognized classes of enterovirulent E. coli that cause gastroenteritis in humans. The enterohemorrhagic strain, designated E. coli serotype O157:H7, is a rare variety of E. coli that produces large quantities of one or two toxins that cause severe damage to the lining of the intestine. These toxins are closely related to the toxin produced by Shigella dysenteriae.

C. jejuni frequently contaminates raw chicken. Surveys show that 20–100% of retail chickens are contaminated. This is not entirely surprising, since many healthy chickens have these bacteria in their intestinal tracts. Raw milk is also a source of infections. The bacteria are often carried by healthy cattle and by flies on farms. However, properly cooking chicken or pasteurizing milk kills the bacteria. Campylobacters can be isolated from freshly slaughtered red-meat carcasses, but in smaller numbers than on poultry. This bacterium is recognized as an important enteric pathogen. Recent surveys have shown that C. jejuni is the leading cause of bacterial diarrhea in the USA, causing more illness than Shigella spp. and Salmonella spp. combined.

L. monocytogenes has been associated with foods such as raw milk, cheeses (particularly soft-ripened varieties), raw vegetables, but also fermented raw-meat sausages, raw and cooked poultry, all types of raw meats, and raw and smoked fish. Its ability to grow at temperatures as low as 3   °C permits multiplication in refrigerated foods. The contamination of meat and meat products can be due to fecal contamination during slaughter, presence on clean and unclean sections in slaughterhouses, and contaminated ground and processed meats: 10–80% of contaminated samples contain less than 10–100   CFU   g−1. L. monocytogenes is a ubiquitous bacteria found in soil, silage, and other environmental sources, and is present in the intestines of 1–10% of humans. L. monocytogenes is quite hardy and resists the deleterious effects of freezing, drying, and heat.

Y. enterocolitica has been recovered from a wide variety of animals, foods, and water. Pigs seem to be the principal reservoir of bioserotypes pathogenic to humans, but the exact cause of the food contamination is unknown.

Aeromonas spp. are ubiquitous and are also associated with foods of animal origin (raw meats, poultry, and milk). A. hydrophila grows rapidly in a refrigerated environment and can increase its number 10–1000-fold in meat and fish samples over 1 week of refrigerated storage.

Among several environments (Table 4), the home is where the pathogens are frequently identified (13%), with 46% of the outbreaks occurring in people eating at home largely due to mishandling of food products (Table 4). The consumer must take care when handling food at home, and recommendations have been given by The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods to prevent the contamination of food products by foodborne pathogens (Table 5).

Table 4. Results of foodborne disease surveillance

Place of contamination or mishandling Identified outbreaks when people eat food products Factors contributing to outbreaks
Entering the food chain at the farm (50%) Homes (46%) Temperature abuse, inadequate cooling, and improper cooking (44%)
Restaurants/hotels (15%)
Mishandling Catered events (8%) Contaminated or toxic raw products (16%)
  Restaurants (22%) Medical-care facilities (6%) Contamination by personnel or equipment (15%)
  Homes (13%) Canteens (6%) Lack of hygiene in processing, preparing, and handling (10%)
  Catering establishments (7%) Schools (5%) Cross-contamination (4%)

Table 5. Recommendations of safe food preparation

Wash hands and utensils before handling food, especially after handling raw foods
Reheat all foods thoroughly (above an internal temperature of 74   °C)
Keep hot food hot (above 63   °C)
Keep cold foods cold (below 4   °C)
Thoroughly cook meat, poultry, and seafood, and adequately heat frozen or refrigerated foods
Chill foods rapidly in shallow containers
Keep raw and cooked foods separate, especially when shopping, preparing, cooking, and storing these products
Wrap and cover foods in the refrigerator
Keep the refrigerator temperature between 1 and 4   °C

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On-line monitoring of meat quality

H.J. Swatland , in Meat Processing, 2002

10.8.2 In meat processing

Connective tissue levels in ground beef may be a problem if too many meat scraps with a high content of tendon are worked into a product. The result may be a gritty texture for hamburger, or excessive gelatin formation in a cooked product. Elastin derived from elastic ligaments has virtually the same fluorescence emission spectrum as Type I collagen from tendon and ligaments. This enables fluorescence emission ratios to be used to predict total connective tissue levels.

Under experimental conditions, collagen fluorescence in comminuted mixtures of chicken skin and muscle may be measured through a quartz-glass rod with a window onto the product (Swatland and Barbut, 1991). High proportions of skin decrease the gel strength of the cooked product (r =– 0.99), causing high cooking losses (r = 0.99) and decreased WHC (r =– 0.92). Fluorescence intensity may be strongly correlated with skin content (r > 0.99 from 460 to 510 nm) and, thus, may be strongly correlated with gel strength, cooking losses and fluid-holding capacity (Fig. 10.5). Correlations would be weaker in a practical application, but still adequate for feed-back control of product composition.

Fig. 10.5. Spectral distribution of the t-statistic for the correlation of fluorescence emission with skin content (line), gel strength (solid squares) and cooking losses (empty squares) in mixtures of chicken breast meat and skin.

One of the problems in calibration is pseudofluorescence - reflectance of the upper edge of the excitation band-pass. This occurs because excitation and emission maxima are fairly close, and the filters and dichroic mirrors used to separate excitation from emission are not perfect. Thus, the standard used to calibrate the apparatus for the measurement of relative fluorescence should have a similar reflectance to meat. Clean aluminium foil with a dull surface is a fairly close match to meat.

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Risk Assessment of Irradiated Foods

Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis , Nikoletta K. Dionisopoulou , in Irradiation of Food Commodities, 2010

Beef

Research was performed to extend ground beef retail display life using antioxidants, reductants, and/or total aerobic plate count (TSP) treatments combined with e-beam irradiation. Half of the treated samples were irradiated at 2.0 kGy absorbed dose under a nitrogen atmosphere, and half remained non-irradiated. Samples were displayed under atmospheric oxygen and evaluated for TPC, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), and instrumental color during 9 days of simulated retail display (SRD). Treated irradiated samples were just as red and vivid on SRD Day 9 as the non-irradiated untreated control at Day 0 ( Duong et al., 2008).

Escherichia coli O157:H7 can contaminate raw ground beef and cause serious human foodborne illness. Although lag phase duration decreased from 10.5 to 45°C, no lag phase was observed at 6, 8, or 10°C. The specific growth rate increased from 6 to 42°C and then declined up to 45°C. In contrast to these profiles, the maximum population density declined with increasing temperature, from approximately 9.7 to 8.2 log CFU/g (Tamplin et al., 2005).

The inactivation kinetics in the death of Listeria innocua NTC 11288 (more radioresistant than five different strains of L. monocytogenes) and Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis and S. enterica serovar Typhimurium by e-beam irradiation has been studied in two types of vacuum-packed RTE dry fermented sausages ("salchichon" and "chorizo") in order to optimize the sanitation treatment of these products. Therefore, this treatment produces safe, dry fermented sausages with similar sensory properties to the non-irradiated product (Cabeza et al., 2009).

Moist beef biltong (mean moisture content, 46.7%; a w, 0.919) was vacuum packaged and irradiated to target doses of 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 kGy. TBARS measurements and sensory difference and hedonic tests were performed to determine the effect of γ-irradiation on the sensory quality of the biltong. Although lean moist beef biltong can thus be irradiated to doses up to 8 kGy without adversely affecting the sensory acceptability, low-dose irradiation (64 kGy) is most feasible to optimize the sensory quality (Nortjé et al., 2005).

E-beam and X-ray irradiation (2 kGy) inactivated E. coli O157:H7 below the limit of detection, whereas hydrostatic pressure treatment (300 mPa for 5 min at 4°C) did not inactivate this pathogen. Solid-phase microextraction was used to extract volatile compounds from treated ground beef patties. Irradiation and hydrostatic pressure altered the volatile composition of the ground beef patties with respect to radiolytic products. However, results were inconclusive regarding whether these differences were great enough to use this method to differentiate between irradiated and non-irradiated samples in a commercial setting (Schilling et al., 2009).

The effect of γ-irradiation (4 and 9 kGy) and packaging on the lipolytic and oxidative processes in lipid fraction of Bulgarian fermented salami during storage at 5°C was evaluated (1, 15, and 30 days). No significant differences were observed in the amounts of total lipids, total phospholipids, and acid number within the vacuum-packed samples of salami treated with 4 and 9 kGy during storage. The changes in TBARS depended mainly on the irradiation dose applied and did not exceed 1.37 mg/kg in all groups (Bakalivanova et al., 2009).

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Novel processing technologies

Ronald F. Eustice , in Genetically Modified and Irradiated Food, 2020

Conclusions

Louis Pasteur said, "To those who devote their lives to science, nothing can give more happiness than making discoveries, but their cups of joy are full only when the results of their studies find practical applications." Pasteur did not live long enough to realize the magnitude of the impact resulting from his efforts. Neither did Marie Curie, whose landmark research on radiant energy and radiation earned her a Nobel Prize in 1904 and set the stage for the use of irradiation of food and medical products.

The first successful marketing of irradiated ground beef took place in Minnesota in May 2000 when several retailers began to offer frozen ground beef that had been irradiated. Minnesota-based Schwan's, Inc., a nationwide foodservice provider through home delivery started marketing irradiated ground beef in 2000. Omaha Steaks of Nebraska has successfully marketed irradiated ground beef through mail order since 2000. Today, all noncooked ground beef offered by Schwan's and Omaha Steaks is irradiated.

Rochester, New York, based Wegmans, with over 90 supermarkets in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, is a strong believer in the irradiation process and is one of the most visible marketers of irradiated ground beef. Although Wegmans takes every measure to ensure that all its ground beef products are safe, the retailer views irradiation as a value-adding process that offers the consumer an additional layer of food safety protection.

Defining moments in food safety

The successful commercial introduction of irradiated ground beef in the United States went largely unnoticed. According to food safety expert Morton Satin, when irradiated ground beef was introduced, consumers gained a reasonable expectation of buying products that offered much greater food safety and lower risk ( Eustice and Bruhn, 2006). As a consequence, untreated ground beef acquired the character legally defining a product having a built-in defect.

Extensive evidence from several countries shows that labeled irradiated foods (fresh and processed meats, fresh produce) have now been successfully sold over a long period by food retailers. There is no record of any irradiated food having been withdrawn from a market simply because it has been irradiated. Although there are some consumers who choose not to purchase irradiated food, a sufficient market has existed for retailers to have continuously stocked irradiated products for years, even more than a decade.

Studies show that it is trust in the systems and institutions rather than perceptions of risk that dictates consumer attitudes and governs the adoption of a new technology. Retailers play an essential role in communicating the benefits of new products to consumers, and it is likely that positive messages on irradiated food from retailers and food producers will generate the most favorable response from consumers.

No one single intervention can provide 100% assurance of the safety of a food product. That is why meat and poultry processing plants use a multiple barrier (hurdle) approach utilizing several types of interventions such as thermal processes combined with chemical and antimicrobial treatment to achieve pathogen reduction. These technologies have successfully reduced, but not eliminated, the number of harmful bacteria in ground beef. Food irradiation does not eliminate the need for established, safe food handling, and cooking practices, but when used in combination with other technologies including an effective HACCP program, irradiation becomes a highly effective and viable sanitary and phytosanitary treatment for food and agricultural products. Irradiation is one of the most effective interventions available because it significantly reduces the dangers of primary and cross-contamination without compromising nutritional or sensory attributes.

Despite the progress made in the introduction of irradiated foods into the marketplace, many consumers and even highly placed policy-makers around the world are still unaware of the effectiveness, safety, and functional benefits that irradiation can bring to foods. Education and skilled marketing efforts are needed to remedy this lack of awareness.

Morton Satin says, "Pathogens do not follow political imperatives or moral philosophies, they simply want to remain biologically active. Strategies to control them, which are based on political ideals or myth-information, will not be effective. If we want to get rid of pathogens, we have to destroy them before they harm us. Food irradiation is one of the safest and most effective ways to do this. An international coordinated effort to develop effective knowledge transfer mechanisms to provide accurate information on food irradiation to policymakers, industry, consumers and trade groups are vital to meet today's food safety needs" (Satin, 2003). The Global Consensus document produced by the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI) may help to convince authorities that there is no reason to doubt information provided by stakeholders that irradiated food is safe (Koutchma et al., 2018).

During the 20th century, life expectancy in the United States increased from 47 to 79 years (WHO, 2015). Many public health experts attribute this dramatic increase to the "pillars" of public health: pasteurization, immunization, and chlorination. Some of these same experts predict that food irradiation will become the fourth pillar of public health. Time will tell whether this prediction is correct and the trend toward widespread acceptance is positive.

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